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Proto-Indo-European religion
Proto-Indo-European religion is the hypothesized religion of the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) peoples based on the existence of similarities among the deities, religious practices and mythologies of the Indo-European peoples. Reconstruction of the hypotheses below is based on linguistic evidence using the comparative method. Archaeological evidence is difficult to match to any specific culture in the period of early Indo-European culture in the Chalcolithic1. Other approaches to Indo-European mythology are possible, most notably the trifunctional hypothesis of Georges Dumézil2. The modern polytheistic reconstructionist religion that is based on this religion is Swedhuismos. Pantheon Linguists are able to reconstruct the names of some deities in the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) from many types of sources. Some of the proposed deity names are more readily accepted among scholars than others.3 Heavenly deities Sky Father The supreme ruler of the Proto-Indo-European pantheon was the god *''Dyḗus Pḥatḗr, whose name literally means "Sky Father". He is believed to have been worshipped as the god of the daylit skies. He is, by far, the most well-attested of all the Proto-Indo-European deities. The Greek god Zeus, the Roman god Jupiter, and the Illyrian god Dei-Pátrous all appear as the head gods of their respective pantheons. The Norse god Týr, however, seems to have been demoted to the role of a minor war-deity during the time prior to the earliest Germanic texts.18 *''Dyḗus Pḥatḗr is also attested in the Rigveda as Dyáus Pitā, a minor ancestor figure mentioned in only a few hymns. The names of the Latvian god Dievs and the Hittite god Attas Isanus do not preserve the exact literal translation of the name *''Dyḗus Pḥatḗr'', but do preserve the general meaning of it.19 *Dyḗus Pḥatḗr may have had a consort who was an earth goddess.20 This possibility is attested in the Vedic pairing of Dyáus Pitā and Prithvi Mater,20 the Roman pairing of Jupiter and Tellus Mater from Macrobius's Saturnalia,20 and the Norse pairing of Odin and Jörð. Odin is not a reflex of *''Dyḗus Pḥatḗr'', but his cult may have subsumed aspects of an earlier chief deity who was.21 This pairing may also be further attested in an Old English ploughing prayer21 and in the Greek pairings of Ouranos and Gaia and Zeus and Demeter.22 Dawn Goddess *''Haéusōs'' has been reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European goddess of the dawn. Derivatives of her found throughout various Indo-European mythologies include the Greek goddess Eos, the Roman goddess Aurōra, the Vedic goddess Uṣás, and the Lithuanian goddess Auštrine.23 The form Arap Ushas appears in Albanian folklore, but as a name for the Moon, not the dawn. An extension of the name may have been *H2eust(e)ro-'',24 since the form ''*as-t-r with an intrusive -t- between s'' and ''r occurs in some northern dialects.2526 Examples of such forms include the Anatolian Estan, Istanus, and Istara, the Greek Hestia, goddess of the hearth, the Latin Vesta, also a hearth goddess, the Armenian Astghik, a star goddess, the Baltic goddess Austija,27 and possibly also the Germanic Ēostre or *Ostara, a goddess associated with a springtime festival who is mentioned only once by Bede in his treatise The Reckoning of Time. Sun and Moon *Seh2ul and *Meh1not are reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European goddess of the Sun and god of the Moon respectively. *Seh2ul is reconstructed based on the Greek god Helios, the Roman god Sol, the Celtic goddess Sul/Suil, the Norse goddess Sól, the Germanic goddess *Sowilō, the Celtic Sul, the Hittite goddess "UTU-liya",28 and the Vedic god Surya.29 *Meh1not-'' is reconstructed based on the Norse god Máni, the Slavic god Myesyats,28 and the Lithuanian god *Meno, or Mėnuo (Mėnulis).30 They are often seen as the twin children of various deities,31 but in fact the sun and moon were deified several times and are often found in competing forms within the same language.31 The usual scheme is that one of these celestial deities is male and the other female, though the exact gender of the Sun or Moon tends to vary among subsequent Indo-European mythologies.31 The original Indo-European solar deity appears to have been female,31 a characteristic not only supported by the higher number of sun goddesses in subsequent derivations (feminine Sól, Saule, Sulis, Solntse—not directly attested as a goddess, but feminine in gender — Étaín, Grían, Aimend, Áine, and Catha versus masculine Helios, Surya, Savitr, Usil, and Sol) (Hvare-khshaeta is of neutral gender),31 but also by vestiges in mythologies with male solar deities (Usil in Etruscan art is depicted occasionally as a goddess, while solar characteristics in Athena and Helen of Troy still remain in Greek mythology).31 The original Indo-European lunar deity appears to have been masculine,31 with feminine lunar deities like Selene, Minerva, and Luna being a development exclusive to the eastern Mediterranean. Even in these traditions, remnants of male lunar deities, like Menelaus, remain.31 Although the sun was personified as an independent, female deity, the Proto-Indo-Europeans also visualized the sun as the eye of *''Dyḗus Pḥatḗr, as seen in various reflexes: Helios as the eye of Zeus,3233 Hvare-khshaeta as the eye of Ahura Mazda, and the sun as "God's eye" in Romanian folklore.34 The names of Celtic sun goddesses like Sulis and Grian may also allude to this association; the words for "eye" and "sun" are switched in these languages, hence the name of the goddesses.3531 Divine Twins Horse Twins The Horse Twins are a set of twin brothers found throughout nearly every Indo-European pantheon who usually have a name that means 'horse' *ekwa-'',36 but the names are not always cognate and no Proto-Indo-European name for them can be reconstructed.36 In most Indo-European pantheons, the Horse Twins are brothers of the Sun Maiden or Dawn goddess, and sons of the sky god.37 They are reconstructed based on the Vedic Ashvins, the Lithuanian Ašvieniai, the Latvian Dieva deli, the Greek Dioskouroi (Kastor and Polydeukes), the Roman Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), and the Old English Hengist and Horsa (whose names mean "stallion" and "horse").38 References from the Greek writer Timaeus indicate that the Celts may have had a set of horse twins as well.39 The Welsh Brân and Manawydan may also be related.36 The horse twins may have been based on the morning and evening star (the planet Venus) and they often have stories about them in which they "accompany" the Sun goddess, because of the close orbit of the planet Venus to the sun.40 Twin Founders The Proto-Indo-European Creation myth seems to have involved two key figures: *Manu-'' ("Man"; Indic Manu; Germanic Mannus) and his twin brother *''Yemo-'' ("Twin"; Indic Yama; Germanic Ymir).4142 Reflexes of these two figures usually fulfill the respective roles of founder of the human race and first human to die.4143 Storm deities Ancient Celtic statue of the storm-god Taranis, clutching a wheel and thunderbolt, from Le Chatelet, Gourzon, Haute-Marne, France *''Perkwunos'' has been reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European god of lightning and storms. His name literally means "The Striker." He is reconstructed based on the Norse goddess Fjǫrgyn (the mother of Thor), the Lithuanian god Perkūnas, and the Slavic god Perúnú. The Vedic god Parjánya may also be related, but his possible connection to *''Perkwunos'' is still under dispute.44 The name of *''Perkwunos'' may also be attested in Greek as κεραυνός (Keraunós), an epithet of the god Zeus meaning "thunder-shaker."45 Water deities Some authors have proposed *Neptonos or *''H2epom Nepōts'' as the Proto-Indo-European god of the waters. The name literally means "Grandson [or Nephew] of the Waters."4748 He has been reconstructed based on the Vedic god Apám Nápát, the Roman god Neptūnus, and the Old Irish god Nechtain. Although such a god has been solidly reconstructed in Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, Mallory and Adams nonetheless still reject him as a Proto-Indo-European deity on linguistic grounds.48 A river goddess *''Dehanu-'' has been proposed based on the Vedic goddess Dānu, the Irish goddess Danu, the Welsh goddess Don and the names of the rivers Danube, Don, Dnieper, and Dniester. Mallory and Adams, however, dismiss this reconstruction, commenting that it does not have any evidence to support it.49 Some have also proposed the reconstruction of a sea god named *''Trihatōn'' based on the Greek god Triton and the Old Irish word trïath, meaning "sea." Mallory and Adams reject this reconstruction as having no basis, asserting that the "lexical correspondence is only just possible and with no evidence of a cognate sea god in Irish."49 Nature deities Two similar depictions of horned deities from the Celtic and Indic traditions5051 *Péh2usōn, a pastoral deity, is reconstructed based on the Greek god Pan and the Vedic god Pūshān. Both deities are closely affiliated with goats and were worshipped as pastoral deities.52 The minor discrepancies between the two deities can be easily explained by the possibility that many attributes originally associated with Pan may have been transferred over to his father Hermes.52 The association between Pan and Pūshān was first identified in 1924 by the German scholar Hermann Collitz.5354 In 1855, Adalbert Kuhn suggested that the Proto-Indo-Europeans may have believed in a set of helper deities, whom he reconstructed based on the Germanic elves and the Hindu rhibus.5556 Though this proposal is often mentioned in academic writings, very few scholars actually accept it.57 There may also have been a female cognate akin to the Greco-Roman nymphs, Slavic vilas, the Huldra of Germanic folklore, and the Hindu Apsaras.58 Societal deities It is highly probable that the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed in three fate goddesses who spun the destinies of mankind. Although such fate goddesses are not directly attested in the Indo-Aryan tradition, the Atharvaveda does contain an allusion comparing fate to a warp.59 Furthermore, the three Fates appear in nearly every other Indo-European mythology.59 Examples include the Hittite Gulses, the Greek Moirai, the Roman Parcae, the Norse Norns, the Lithuanian Deivės Valdytojos, the Latvian Láimas, the Serbian Sudjenice, and the Albanian Fatit.60 They appear in English mythology as the Wyrdes,61 who were later adapted to become the Three Witches in Shakespeare's Macbeth.62 An Old Irish hymn attests to seven goddesses who were believed to weave the thread of destiny, which demonstrates that these spinster fate-goddesses were present in Celtic mythology as well.63 Although the name of a particular Proto-Indo-European smith god cannot be linguistically reconstructed,48 it is highly probable that the Proto-Indo-Europeans had a smith deity of some kind since smith gods occur in nearly every Indo-European culture, with examples including the Hittite god Hasammili, the Vedic god Tvastr, the Greek god Hephaestus, the Germanic villain Wayland the Smith, and the Ossetian culture figure Kurdalagon.64 Many of these smith figures share certain characteristics in common. Hephaestus, the Greek god of blacksmiths, and Wayland the Smith, a nefarious blacksmith from Germanic mythology, are both described as lame.65 Additionally, Wayland the Smith and the Greek mythical inventor Daedalus both escape imprisonment on an island by fashioning sets of mechanical wings from feathers and wax and using them to fly away.66 The Proto-Indo-Europeans may have had a goddess who presided over the trifunctional organization of society. Various epithets of the Iranian goddess Anahita and the Roman goddess Juno provide sufficient evidence to solidly attest that she was probably worshipped, but no specific name for her can be lexically reconstructed.67 Vague remnants of this goddess may also be preserved in the Greek goddess Athena.68 Some scholars have proposed a war god *''Māwort-'' based on the Roman god Mars and the Vedic Marutás, companions of the war-god Indra. Mallory and Adams, however, reject this reconstruction on linguistic grounds.69 Pandemonium "Pandemonium" is Jaan Puhvel's word for the mutual demonization that occurred when the Younger-Avesta demonized the daevas, and the post-Rigvedic texts demonized the asuras. Neither demonization occurs in the oldest texts: in the Rigveda, there is not yet any hard-and-fast distinction between asuras and dēvas, and even in the later Vedas, the two groups (though thematically in opposition) cooperate at certain times.17 In the Old Avestan texts the daevas are to be rejected for being misguided by the "lie", but they are still gods, and not demons.18 However, in the 19th century this distinction between the older and younger texts had not yet been made, and in 1884 Martin Haug "postulated his thesis that the transition of both the words [asuras and devas] into the designations of the demons ... is based on a prehistoric schism in religion ..."19 The observation was reiterated by Jacob Grimm (DM3, p. 985), who, like Haug, considered it to be the theological basis of Zoroastrianism's dualism. Before this (in the 1850s), Westergaard had attributed the Younger-Avesta's demonization of the daevas to a "moral reaction against Vedic polytheism", but that (unlike the general notion of a mutual demonization) was very quickly rejected, and by 1895 James Darmesteter noted that it has "no longer had any supporter."20 Nonetheless, some modern authors like Mallory and Adams still refer to Zoroastrianism as a "religious reformation" of Vedic religion (Mallory & Adams 2006, pp. 408–09). Most scholars however stress that there were two independent developments in ancient Iran and post-Rigvedic India, but nonetheless to be considered against the common background of prehistoric Indo-Iranian religion where both groups coexisted, with the asuras, perhaps even as a subset (having a particular common characteristic, like the Adityas) of the daevas, the national gods. Mythology See also: Swedhuismos mythology Dragon or serpent One common myth found in nearly all Indo-European mythologies is a battle ending with a hero or god slaying a serpent or dragon of some sort.707172 Although the details of story often vary widely,73 in all iterations, several features remain remarkably the same.73 In iterations of the story, the serpent is usually associated with water in some way.74 The hero of the story is usually a thunder-god or a hero who is somehow associated with thunder.71 The serpent is usually multi-headed, or else "multiple" in some other way.7275 The earliest attested of these stories is the legend from Hittite mythology in which the storm god Tarhunt slays the giant serpent Illuyanka.76 Next oldest is the account recorded in the Rigveda in which the god Indra slays the multi-headed serpent Vritra, which had been causing a drought.77 In the Bhagavata Purana, Krishna slays the serpent Kāliyā. Several variations of the story are also found in Greek mythology as well. The story is attested in the legend of Zeus slaying the hundred-headed Typhon from Hesiod's Theogony, but it is also in the myths of the slaying of the nine-headed Lernaean Hydra by Heracles and the slaying of Python by Apollo.75 The story of Heracles's theft of the cattle of Geryon is probably also related.75 Although Heracles is not usually thought of as a storm deity in the conventional sense, he bears many attributes held by other Indo-European storm deities, including physical strength and a knack for violence and gluttony.75 The original Proto-Indo-European myth is also reflected in Germanic mythology. In Norse mythology, Thor, the god of thunder, slays the giant serpent Jörmungandr, which lived in the waters surrounding the realm of Midgard.78 Other dragon-slaying myths are also found in the Germanic tradition. In the Völsunga saga, Sigurd slays the dragon Fafnir and, in Beowulf, the eponymous hero slays a different dragon. Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European dragon-slaying myth are found throughout other branches of the language family as well. In Zoroastrianism and Persian mythology, Fereydun, and later Garshasp, slays Zahhak.79 In Slavic mythology, Perun, the god of storms, slays Veles and Dobrynya Nikitich slays the three-headed dragon Zmey. In Armenian mythology, the god Vahagn slays the dragon Vishap.80 In Romanian folklore, Făt-Frumos slays the fire-spitting monster Zmeu. In Celtic mythology, Dian Cecht slays Meichi. The myth is believed to have symbolized a clash between forces of order and chaos.70 In every version of the story, the dragon or serpent always loses, although in some mythologies, such as the Norse Ragnarök myth, the hero or god dies as well. The Proto-Indo-European name for the serpent may have been *kʷr̥mis, or some name cognate with *''Varuna/Werunos'' or the root *''Wel''/''Vel''- (VS Varuna, who is associated with the serpentine naga, Vala and Vṛtra, Slavic Veles, Baltic velnias), or "serpent" (Hittite Illuyanka, VS Ahis, Iranian azhi, Greek ophis and Ophion, and Latin anguis), or the root *''dheubh''- (Greek Typhon and Python). Sun Related to the dragon-slaying myth is the "Sun in the rock" myth, in which the Sun is imprisoned within a rock, but is set free by a heroic warrior deity, who splits open the rock, allowing her to escape. In the Rigveda, the goddess Ushas and a herd of cows are freed from imprisonment after the god Indra slays the multi-headed serpent Vritra.81 A comparable myth in the Greek tradition is the myth of Aphrodite rising from the foam of the sea following Ouranos's castration by Kronos.81 The Greek Sun-god Helios, the Hindu god Surya, and the Germanic goddess Sól are all represented as riding in chariots pulled by white horses. The earliest discovered chariots come from the Kurgan culture in southwest Russia, commonly identified as belonging to the Proto-Indo-Europeans.82 The myth of the Sun and Moon being swallowed by some kind of predator is also found throughout multiple Indo-European language groups. In Norse mythology, the Sun goddess (Sól) and Moon god (Máni) are swallowed by the wolves Sköll and Hati Hróðvitnisson.83 In Hinduism, the Sun god (Surya) and Moon god (Chandra) are swallowed by the demon serpents Rahu and Ketu, resulting in eclipses.84 Twin founders The analysis of different Indo-European tales indicates that the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed there were two progenitors of mankind: *''Manu-'' ("Man") and *''Yemo-'' ("Twin"), his twin brother. A reconstructed creation myth involving the two is given by David W. Anthony, attributed in part to Bruce Lincoln:85 Manu and Yemo traverse the cosmos, accompanied by the primordial cow, and finally decide to create the world. To do so, Manu sacrifices either Yemo or the cow, and with help from the sky father, the storm god and the divine twins, forges the earth from the remains. Manu thus becomes the first priest and establishes the practice of sacrifice. The sky gods then present cattle to the third man, *''Trito'', who loses it to the three-headed serpent *''Ngwhi'', but eventually overcomes this monster either alone or aided by the sky father. Trito is now the first warrior and ensures that the cycle of mutual giving between gods and humans may continue.85 Reflexes of *Manu include Indic Manu, Germanic Mannus; of Yemo, Indic Yama, Avestan Yima, Norse Ymir, possibly Roman Remus (< earlier Old Latin *Yemos).85 Ancient Roman relief from the Cathedral of Maria Saal showing the infant twins Romulus and Remus being suckled by a she-wolf The early "history" of Rome is widely recognized as a historicized retelling of various old myths.86 Romulus and Remus are twin brothers from Roman mythology who both have stories in which they are killed.87 The Roman writer Livy reports that Remus was believed to have been killed by his brother Romulus at the founding of Rome when they entered into a disagreement about which hill to build the city on. Later, Romulus himself is said to have been torn limb-from-limb by a group of senators.882 Both of these myths are widely recognized as historicized remnants of the Proto-Indo-European creation story.89 The Germanic languages have information about both Ymir and Mannus (reflexes of *Yemo-'' and ''*Manu-'' respectively),90 but they never appear together in the same myth. Instead, they only occur in myths widely separated by both time and circumstances.90 In chapter two of his book ''Germania, which was written in Latin in around 98 A.D., the Roman writer Tacitus claims that Mannus, the son of Tuisto, was the ancestor of the Germanic people.90 This name never recurs anywhere in later Germanic literature,91 but one proposed meaning of the German tribal name Alamanni is "Mannus' own people" ("all-men" being another scholarly etymology).91 Bulls * Celtic (in this case Irish) texts were written down between the 11th and 14th centuries CE. In one myth a bull is killed and dismembered by another bull and the parts of his body are distributed around Ireland, which explains the names of many features of the landscape, though not the cause of their existence. "It was not long before the men of Erin Ireland, as they were there in the company of Ailill and Madb early on the morrow, saw coming over Cruachan from the west, the Brown Bull of Cualnge with the Whitehorned Bull of Ai in torn fragments hanging about his ears and horns." An example of one of the distributions is this one: "Then he raised his head, and the shoulder-blades of the Whitehorned fell from him in that place. Hence, Sruthair Finnlethe ('Stream of the White Shoulder-blade') is the name given to it." The original source is the last chapter of the Táin Bó Cúalnge, usually called in English, The Cattle Raid of Cooley. These quotations are from The Ancient Irish Epic Tale, Táin Bó Cúalnge, transl. by Joseph Dunn, publ. David Nutt, London, 1914. * In Lithuanian, a folktale tells of a bull and 3 cows which are beheaded by Aušrinė, (the morning star) and then the land appears. "The maiden upon returning released her bull. The bull knelt down and spoke in a man's voice: "Chop off my head!" The maiden did not want to chop it off, but she had to. She chopped the head off—a fourth of the seas disappeared, became land. Her brother emerged from the bull. She cut off the heads of all three cows, who were her sisters. All the seas disappeared, turned to land. The earth sprang to life." The original source for this is a folktale called Saulė and Vejų Motina (The Sun and the Mother of the Winds), pp. 309–13, of M. Davainis-Silvestraitis' Collection, Pasakos, Sakmės, Oracijos (Tales, Legends and Orations) publ. in Vilnius, 1973. The English version is from p. 67 Of Gods and Men by Algirdas J. Greimas, transl. by Milda Newman, Indiana Univ. Press, Indianapolis, 1992. Other myths Other myths may have included: Creation myths * Birth of the Horse Twins from the grain/horse mother (Cox, p. 234, found in 7/11 language groups, which is a very conservative statistic) * Danu killed and cut open to produce a river (a parturition creation myth, 3/11) Cyclic myths * Spring kills Winter, usually with his sprinkler or his striker (Cox, p. 559, found in 4/11 language groups) * Cloud/cows stolen from the sun god by the wind god and then released (Cox, p. 232, 4/11) * Death and rebirth of the (often grain-associated) life-death-rebirth deity causes the seasons; Frazer calls him the "Dying Corn God" (Frazer, Vol. 8 and 9 of the Golden Bough esp. Vol. 9, p. 412-423; 4/11) * Uncle Water melts the ice and releases the water causing flooding (Gamkrelidze and Ivanov 1995, 5/11) * Quest of the golden apples of immortality, usually by a wind god (Cox, p. 512, 4/11) Culture myths * Culture myths, stories in which some godlike being teaches the "arts of civilization" (actually technologies) to humans, are found in all cultures. The culture myths of the Indo-Europeans tell how the culture gods taught humans such arts as how to make fire, the proper way to kill and butcher an animal (sacrifice), religious rituals and law codes, smithing, weaving, ploughing, and healing. Culture-giving figures (e.g. Prometheus and Loki) sometimes have an intermediate position between gods and humans (i.e., demigods). They are certainly supernatural, but they often die or are tortured by other gods for their beneficence to humans; nevertheless they are often revived and worshipped like regular gods or revered as heroes. Mallory and Adams call them Craft Gods and argue that they are not linguistically reconstructible; however, Cox compares Greek Prometheus with Hindu Pramanthu (Cox, p. 421). Smith gods, a subset of the culture gods, are slightly reconstructible according to Mallory and Adams. Fire in water Another important possible myth is the myth of the fire in the waters, a myth which centers around the possible deity *''H2epom Nepōts, a fiery deity who dwells in water.92 In the Rigveda, the god Apám Nápát is envisioned as a form of fire residing in the waters.93 In Celtic mythology, a well belonging to the god Nechtain is said to blind all those who gaze into it.92 In an old Armenian poem, a small reed in the middle of the sea spontaneously catches fire and the hero Vahagn springs forth from it with fiery hair and a fiery beard and eyes that blaze as suns.94 In a ninth-century Norwegian poem by the poet Thiodolf, the name ''sǣvar niþr, meaning "grandson of the sea," is used as a kenning for fire.95 Even the Greek tradition contains possible allusions to the myth of a fire-god dwelling deep beneath the sea. The phrase "νέποδες καλῆς Ἁλοσύδνης," meaning "descendants of the beautiful seas," is used in The Odyssey 4.404 as an epithet for the seals of Proteus.94 Binding of evil Jaan Puhvel notes similarities between the Norse myth in which the god Týr inserts his hand into the wolf Fenrir's mouth while the other gods bind him with Gleipnir, only for Fenrir to bite off Týr's hand when he discovers he cannot break his bindings,96 and the Iranian myth in which Jamshid rescues his brother's corpse from Ahriman's bowels by shoving his hand up Ahriman's anus and pulling out his brother's corpse, only for his hand to become infected with leprosy.97 In both accounts, an authority figure forces the evil entity into submission by inserting his hand into the being's orifice (in Fenrir's case the mouth, in Ahriman's the anus) and losing it.97 Fenrir and Ahriman fulfill different roles in their own mythological traditions and are unlikely to be remnants of a Proto-Indo-European "evil god";98 nonetheless, it is clear that the "binding myth" is of Proto-Indo-European origin.99 Cosmology See also: Swedhuismos cosmology Most Indo-European traditions contain some kind of Underworld or Afterlife. It is possible that the Proto-Indo-Europeans may have believed that, in order to reach the Underworld, one needed to cross a river, guided by an old man (*ĝerhaont-'').100 The Greek tradition of the dead being ferried across the river Styx by Charon is probably a reflex of this belief.100 The idea of crossing a river to reach the Underworld is also present throughout Celtic mythologies.101 Several Vedic texts contain references to crossing a river in order to reach the land of the dead and the Latin word ''tarentum meaning "tomb" originally meant "crossing point."102 In Norse mythology, Hermóðr must cross a bridge over the river Giöll in order to reach Hel.103 In Latvian folk songs, the dead must cross a marsh rather than a river.104 Traditions of placing coins on the bodies of the deceased in order to pay the ferryman are attested in the ancient Greek religion, but in the Slavic tradition as well.101 It is also possible that the Proto-Indo-Europeans may have believed that the Underworld was guarded by some kind of watchdog, similar to the Greek Cerberus, the Hindu Śárvara, or the Norse Garmr.100105 World tree and serpent The Proto-Indo-Europeans may have believed in some kind of world tree.106 It is also possible that they may have believed that this tree was either guarded by or under constant attack from some kind of dragon or serpent.106 In Norse mythology, the world ash tree Yggdrasil is tended by the three Norns while the dragon Nidhogg gnaws at its roots.106 In Greek mythology, the tree of the golden apples in the Garden of the Hesperides is tended by the three Hesperides and guarded by the hundred-headed dragon Ladon.107 In Indo-Iranian texts, there is a mythical tree dripping with Soma, the immortal drink of the gods and, in later Pahlavi sources, an evil lizard is said to lurk at the bottom of it.106 Ritual Émile Benveniste states that "there is no common IE term to designate religion itself, or cult, or the priest, not even one of the personal gods".26 There are, however, terms denoting ritual practice reconstructed in Indo-Iranian religion which have root cognates in other branches, hinting at common PIE concepts. Thus, the stem *''hrta''-, usually translated as "(cosmic) order" (Vedic ŗta and Iranian arta).27 Benveniste states, "We have here one of the cardinal notions of the legal world of the Indo-Europeans to say nothing of their religious and moral ideas" (pp. 379–381). He also adds that an abstract suffix -tu formed the Vedic stem ŗtu-'', Avestan ''ratu-'' which designated order, particularly in the seasons and periods of time and which appears in Latin ''ritus "rite" and Sanskrit ritu. The following list of reconstructed PIE religious terms is based on EIEC28 and Lyle Campbell29 * *''isH1ro'' ‘holy’ * *''sakro-'' ‘sacred’ (derived from *''sak-'' ‘to sanctify’) 493, EIEC * *''kywen(to)-'' ‘holy’ 493, EIEC * *''noibho-'' ‘holy’ 493, EIEC * *''preky-'' ‘pray’ * *''meldh-'' ‘pray’ 449, EIEC * *''gwhedh-'' ‘pray’ 449, EIEC * *''H1wegwh-'' ‘speak solemnly’; p. 449, EIEC * *''ĝheuHx-'' ‘call, invoke’ (perhaps English god < *''ĝhu-to-'' from ‘that which is invoked’, but derivation from *''ĝhu-to-'' ‘libated’ from *''ĝheu-'' ‘libate, pour’ is also possible). 89, EIEC * *''kowHxei-'' ‘priest, seer/poet’ 451, EIEC * *''Hxiaĝ-'' ‘worship’ * *''weik-'' ‘consecrate’ (earlier meaning perhaps ‘to separate’), p. 493, EIEC; p. 29, Grimm[30] * *''sep-'' ‘handle reverently’ 450, EIEC * *''spend-'' ‘libate’ * *''ĝheu-'' ‘libate’ and *''ĝheu-mņ'' ‘libation’ * *''dapnom'' ‘sacrificial meal’ from *''dap-'', 496, EIEC; p. 484, Benveniste * *''tolko/eH2-'' ‘meal’ (at least late PIE) 496, EIEC * *''nemos'' ‘sacred grove’ (used in west and centre of the IE world) * *''werbh-'' ‘sacred enclosure’ Development The various Indo-European daughter-cultures continued elements of PIE religion, syncretizing it with innovations and foreign elements, notably Ancient Near Eastern and Dravidian elements, the reforms of Zoroaster and Buddha, and the spread of Christianity and Islam. This list comprises both the historical religions and modern polytheistic reconstructionist movements. * Proto-Indo-European: Swedhuismos ** Anatolian: Hittite mythology ** Indo-Iranian: *** Indo-Aryan: Vedic religion and mythology, Indian religions (Hinduism and Hindu mythology, Buddhism and Buddhist mythology, Jainism, Sikhism), and Kalasha (religion) *** Iranian: Zoroastrianism, Persian mythology *** Scythian and Ossetian: Assianism and Uatsdin ** Greek: Greek polytheism and mythology, Hellenistic religion, Hellenismos ** Italic: Roman polytheism and mythology, Religio Romana ** Celtic: Celtic polytheism and mythology, Celtic Reconstructionism ** Germanic: Germanic mythology (Continental, Anglo-Saxon and Norse mythology), Germanic Heathenism, Ásatrú, Forn Sed, Odinism, Wotanism, Theodism ** Baltic: Latvian mythology, Lithuanian mythology, Baltic Neopaganism ** Slavic: Slavic mythology, Rodnovery ** Tocharian: little evidence, Silk Road transmission of Buddhism ** Armenian: limited evidence, Armenian mythology, Hetanism ** Prehistoric Balkans: Paleo-Balkanic mythology Notes # ↑ Mallory & Adams (1989) # ↑ Mythe et Épopée I, II, III, by G. Dumézil, Gallimard, 1995. # ↑ In order to present a consistent notation, the reconstructed forms used here are cited from Mallory & Adams (2006). For further explanation of the laryngeals - 1>, 2>, and 3> - see the Laryngeal theory article. # ↑ Mallory & Adams (2006): 409-31 # ↑ Mallory & Adams (2006): 408 # ↑ Mallory & Adams (2006): 267 # ↑ Gamkrelidze & Ivanov (1995): 760 # ↑ Mallory & Adams (2006): 410-33 # ↑ Mallory & Adams (2006): 409, 410, 432 # ↑ Mallory & Adams (2006): 294, 301 # ↑ Mallory & Adams (2006): 702, 780; [[#GamkIvanov|Gamkrelidze & Ivanov (1995) # ↑ The Journal of Indo-European Studies, publ. by JIES, Washington, DC., 1973 and continuing # ↑ Mallory. In Search of the Indo-Europeans. 1987. p. 140. # ↑ Lincoln, Bruce. Death, War, and Sacrifice: Studies in Ideology & Practice. 1991 # ↑ Jaan Puhvel, Analecta Indoeuropaea, (a collection of articles), publ. by Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Sprachwissenschaft, Innsbruck, 1981 # ↑ Encyclopedia of IE Culture, p. 556. # ↑ Kuiper, F.B.J. (1983). Irwin, J.. ed. Ancient Indian Cosmology. Delhi: Vikas. # ↑ Herrenschmidt, Clarisse; Kellens, Jean (1993). "*Daiva". Encyclopaedia Iranica. 6'. Cosa Mesa: Mazda. pp. 601. # ↑ Hillebrandt, Alfred (1891/1981). Sarma, Sreeramula Rajeswara, trans.. ed. ''Vedic Mythology. '''2. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 264. # ↑ Darmesteter, James (1895). Müller, Max. ed. Sacred Books of the East. 4. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. lii. # ↑ Sacred Books of the East, transl. by various Oriental scholars, series ed. by Max Müller, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1879-1904. # ↑ The Mythology of the Aryan Nations by George W. Cox, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., London, 1887. # ↑ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_period # ↑ Vedic Mythology by Alfred Hillebrandt, transl. by Sreeramula Rajeswara Sarma, publ. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1981 (orig. 1891) # ↑ Ibid. # ↑ Indo-European Language and Society by Émile Benveniste (transl. by Elizabeth Palmer, pp. 445-6; orig. title Le vocabulaire des institutions Indo-Européennes, 1969), University of Miami Press, Coral Gables, Florida, 1973. # ↑ Gamkrelidze and Ivanov 1995 p. 810; c.f. Hittite ara, UL ara, D''Ara'' (a Hittite goddess). # ↑ Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, J.P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams, ed., Fitzroy Dearborn, London, 1997. # ↑ Historical Linguistics, An Introduction, by Lyle Campbell, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2004, pp. 391-392; see also Gamkrelidze and Ivanov 1995, p. 832-7, ritual language. # ↑ Deutsche Mythologie by Jacob Grimm, (English title Teutonic Mythology, transl. by Stallybrass), George Bell and Sons, London, 1883. See also * Chariot burial * Swedhuismos * Horse sacrifice References * Benveniste, Emile; Palmer, Elizabeth (translator) (1973). Indo-European Language and Society. Coral Gables, Florida: University of Miami Press. ISBN 9780870242502. * Cox, George William (1887). The Mythology of the Aryan Nations. London: Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0543949295. * Frazer, James (1919-19-20). The Golden Bough. London: MacMillan. * Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Ivanov, Vjaceslav V. (1995). "Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and a Proto-Culture". in Winter, Werner. Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs 80. Berlin: M. De Gruyter * Grimm, Jacob; Stallybrass, James Steven (translator) (1966). Teutonic Mythology. London: Dover. (DM). * Janda, Michael, Die Musik nach dem Chaos, Innsbruck 2010. * Mallory, James P. (1991). In Search of the Indo-Europeans. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500276167. * Mallory, James P.; Adams, Douglas Q., eds (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Routledge. (EIEC) * Mallory, James P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (2006). Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. London: Oxford University Press * Renfrew, Colin (1987). Archaeology & Language. The Puzzle of the Indo-European Origins. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0521354325. * Watkins, Calvert (1995). How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195144130. * West, Martin Litchfield (2007). Indo-European poetry and myth. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199280759. External links * Internet Sacred Texts Archive * Bizland linguistic sources (broken link)